Step 4 of the Reading Exercise MEHAP book ch. 13

Prelude to Disaster

· Natural problems occurred, prohibiting the populace from creating enough food to provide for themselves

· The people, weakened by the shortage of food, gained illnesses, died, and consequently were unable to work.

· The decline of health, and population caused the citizens to find scapegoats, become greedy, and attack innocent people, which resulted in tumult, and general chaos.

The Black Death

· The Black Death arrived in Europe, causing many more deaths, population decline, and hatred.

· Since people were unable to find causes for the phenomenon, they blamed everything on rich people, and Jews, who had gold.

· The terrible toll the Black Death took on Europe not only damaged the physical and political structure of the entire continent, but changed the mood of the people negatively for years.

The Hundred Years’ War

· The war began as the King of England decided to claim some of France’s lands as his, and with the French barons supporting him.

· The war took place mainly in France, lasted around 110 years, and involved all classes of people, from nobles to poor serfs.

· The war took its toll on the countries via high taxes, shortage of workers, and the decline of the nobility.

The Decline of the Church’s Prestige

· The orientation of the Pope’s residence was highly inefficient, and caused Papal authority to decline, and left Rome impoverished.

· Two new Popes appeared, and had different views on how to go about fixing this problem. Their followers were nearly equal in number, and caused much unrest, which initiated the Great Schism.

· Many people thought that the church should be subordinate to the state; conflicts continued even after both Popes were deposed, and a new one elected.

The Life of the People

· Everyday life was disorganized, and boring. People could only marry once, and not out of love; life consisted of mainly only the church, and the farming.

· Crime was also widespread, as even nobles could not refrain from the “joy” of kidnap and torture.

· Finally, the terrible conditions of this lifestyle caught up with the people, who openly revolted against the inefficient governments.

Vernacular Literature

· As nations emerged out of the chaotic mess of Europe, they developed their own unique languages.

· Writers and poets were able to use this new development to write to the general public, who spoke in these vernacular languages, instead of writing high literature such as Latin, and gained more popularity as well as historic importance. This contact with the general public also increased the general level of education, and gave more people the opportunity to find jobs.

· Some of these writers included Dante, who wrote the Divine Comedy, and Chaucer, with his Canterbury Tales.

Review Question Response MEHAP book ch. 13

1) Because medicine in the Middle Ages was highly underdeveloped, no cure, or relieving treatment for the plague had been discovered. The people were at a loss for the possible scientific cause of this disease, and the only reasonable explanation left was that it was the work of God. This created two groups of people – those that started to punish themselves to look better in the eyes of God, and those that started to lose their faith because they couldn’t understand why God was doing this. Both of these groups’ solutions to the problem were very negative, thus the mood of the Middle Ages also became very gloomy and hopeless. Poets wrote pieces centered on death and despair, painters made visions of skeletons leading people to Hell, and sermons were centered on death being close and unforgiving. Even today, when we look back upon the Middle Ages, we see a dark and sinister world.

2) The Hundred Years War was a very long and exhausting event for Europe. The English King claimed the French throne, and, supported by barons, initiated the event. The war engulfed mountains of money, hordes of people, and destroyed cities, but the only military change that happened at the end was the capture on one small city in France, and an increase in the hatred between France and England. The money lost had to be repaid by governments, making them in very deep debt, which made them unable to support its citizens. The citizens, outraged, revolted, and created even more problems for the governments. Eventually, the governments spiraled downward, were overthrown, and replaced by just as incompetent ones. Thus, the War was pointless, and useless, and was not worth all the time and energy France and England put into it.

3) Since the Pope was in France, he could not have direct contact with his people in Italy, and with the other high clergy members. Therefore, he was isolated from the church, but still had a lot of power. This corrupted the Pope, and he was only concerned with money, and how to manipulate the government. His lack of attention towards Italy left the country poverty-stricken, and his people did not appreciate that very much. Even more to inhibit his power was the conciliar movement, which wanted the papal authority to be given to a council, and the church to be subordinate to the state. This movement inevitably attracted followers, and opposition towards the Pope grew until a new Pope was elected creating an even bigger schism.

4) After the Hundred Year’s War, governments were unable to support its citizens, and instead, pelted them with taxes, tried to freeze wages, ignored food shortages, and did nothing about the multitudes of fur-collar crimes being committed. Added to all this, a slightly better lifestyle gave citizens false hope that it would keep increasing, so the people blamed the government for not meeting their rising expectations. All this put so much anger against the government into the citizens’ minds, that they began revolts to try to institute new ones. Citizens protested against bad taxes in front of their Lords’ manors, and they sometimes even had armed uprisings. Finally, King Richard II and his nobles tricked the peasants into ending the revolt.

Brief Summary of the Late Middle Ages

The middle ages are, as they are often called, quite “Dark.” Corrupt and disorganized political activity brews with gruesome physical suffering, such as famine and plague, to create a terrifying world for its inhabitants. Poor harvests and natural disasters wiped out the food supply, stopping economics, and starving the population. Immediately afterwards, the plague arrives, diminishing the population even further. Terrifying recounts of this disease were written everywhere while a third of Europe’s people are wiped out. Then, not a moment too soon, the Hundred Year’s War begins, taking most of the nobility, and the working men, which destroys the noble class, and forces women to take jobs such as priests, which is highly disliked by critics. During all this chaos, however, the life of the people must continue, and it reflects the mood of Europe very well. Marriage was very restricted, and divorce did not exist; the church was corrupt, and the people doubted their religion – the only thing keeping them together, and sane. Nobles, who were supposed to be gracious and dignified, committed crimes for lack of better things to do. All this led to the people being outraged that their government cannot prevent all this terror, and revolts began to dot the continent, to the point that governments were being greatly weakened by the incidents. All this shows that the feudal system in the middle ages was now out of date, and that a new government was needed to institute peace within the people. However, rulers were far from willing to undergo such reform, and many revolutions followed in the years after.

We Know Your Plans, Catiline

III. And indeed it is someone, Catiline, who now might hope for more, if neither the night is able to conceal the impious meetings by means of darkness nor are the private homes able to secure the voices of your conspiracy by means of walls, if they are being made clear, if they are breaking out everything? Now change your mind, trust me, to forget bloodshed and burning. You are represented everywhere; all your intentions are clearer to us at daybreak, you may now review these with me.

Troia

The Greeks and Trojans fought at Troy. The Trojans were the Barbarians, who lived in Asia. The Trojans and the Greeks fought for 9 years. At the tenth year, Ulysses, a famous Greek, had in mind a new strategy. He told all the Greeks by means of a signal and entrusted to them the strategy: “Carry much wood from the forest to the camp. Prepare a high horse from the wood. We will give a new gift to the Barbarians.”

The Greeks prepared the horse and men climbed into the horse one by one. On the horse they wrote: “The Greeks give the gift by means of Minerva.” Then the moved the horse to the Trojans. They navigated to a small island and prepared the crops. The Barbarians deserted the horse and the camp when they caught sight of the Greeks. They said a sacred sign and moved the horse into the town. At night the Greeks returned from the island and one of the Greeks called forth the men from the horse by means of a sign. In the town, the allies talked. The Greeks occupied Troy. The fortune of the Trojans was bad.

To Rome

On the land horses could be seen clearly. “The horses are a sign of a battle,” says Anchises; “the horses bear war. We should not engage in battle.” They do not remain there, but hurry to the neighbouring Sicily. Aetna frightens them, and they hurry from Sicily.

Then Juno, queen of the gods, who the Trojans do not like, comes to Aoelus, who controls and rules the winds, and says:

“If the strong winds will blow on the ships of the Trojans, I will have great thanks, and give you a great treasure.”

Aeolus hastens to hurl the winds into the ships. The Trojans become frightened of the high waves. The arms of the men are in the waves. Then Neptune, the got of the waves, hears the winds and comes to the place where the ships are. The anger of Neptune is great; the winds flee far. A few of the Trojans are lost; the survivours come to the neighbouring land and are being protected. But in which land are they? They do not know, but did not hesitate to make camp.

The Twelve Tables of the Law

Once upon a time, this word was being recited by Publius, the Second, his little sister listens: “The enemy of the enemy rules forever.”

Publius the Second was being ridiculed for his word, but this is withdrawn into the Forum.And so, Rufus is the Father to the Second. Rufus finds the Second and asks: “What is ‘The enemy of the enemy rules forever?’” I heard this being said by Publius.”

The father explains: “These are the words of the laws of the Twelve Tables, which are always memorized by all Roman boys, from the time when they were written.”

“When were they written?”

“At the beginning of the years of the civilization, When the Ten men had power.The laws of Rome were lengthy, retained in the memory of man, not written. But to the population of Rome desired to write them down, because many injuries to men were not known in the laws.”

Superstitiones

Once, Rufus observed the sky while he is walking in the Forum, and saw three birds on the right part.

“It is a Sign!” he said. “Fortune was a friend to my business!”

It turned out thus: the business went well; and so Rufus always believed the birds to bring good fortune to his business.

Most Romans were always on the lookout for signs and omens – in the sky, on earth, in the fires. They were believing the gods themselves to come to oppressed men for sleep and warn them.

Spartacus

Spartacus was a distinguished slave, captive of the Romans. He called forth the allies, and urged on war: “O allies, the Romans are not equal. I was a boy in my village, and my life was always pleasant. Great was the peace in our fatherland. The populace was equal. I loved the great forests and the spacious fields. I did not have a master; there I was free. I had true friends, good and agreeable boys. But the Romans occupied our fatherland; they carried me and my friends from the fatherland.”

Now, after many years I am a man, and fight in the public arena. Today, in this town I did not recognize the man whom I killed – and was my friend!

Are you men? You do not like the populace of Rome and the bad masters. We do not deserve these injuries. Our cause is just. Is the hour not now? To arms! Fight! Show your pride! Call your allies to help! We will free the slaves, we will be free, we will hurry to depart to our sacred fatherland and there we will work in our fields and live in harmony.”

Mark Antony

Role: Mark Antony was born circa 83 BC, and was one of Caesar’s most trusted men by the time he was 36 (47 BC). This is true, because even though he had a majour fight with Caesar—which involved violence—about Antony’s domus, and was fired from any political involvement, he was reinstated back into Caesar’s staff shortly thereafter, and on an even higher level, as partner for Caesar's fifth consulship.

When Caesar was assassinated, Mark Antony was forced to share Rome with two other men (Octavian, and Lepidus). Mark Antony got the eastern and half of the northern part of rome—basically all of the Greek and Middle Eastern parts of Rome, while Octavian had Rome herself, and Gaul, and Lepidus had Africa. As Ruler of those lands, Mark Antony was very self-centered, and concerned with conquering new lands (Chiefly Armenia and Parthia). He was already on bad terms with Octavian, and when Octavian did not send him the army Antony requested to conquer Armenia with, his relations went even more bad.

In his Middle Eastern endeavours, Mark Antony met the Queen of Egypt, Cleopatra, and they fell in love, and got married, Antony thus abandoning his present wife. He then distributed the lands he had in his possessions to Cleopatra and her children, and declared the children the rightful heirs of Caesar. Octavian was outraged, because he claimed to be the rightful heir, and thus began a civil war in Rome in 31 BC, with Octavian on one side, and Mark Antony on another. Octavian beat Mark Antony all the way back to Egypt in this war, and had in effect trapped Antony and Cleopatra in Egypt. Mark Antony then decided that Cleopatra had committed suicide, and did so himself by falling on his sword. The still living Cleopatra followed suit several days later by drinking poison. With their death, Octavian became the uncontested ruler of Rome, and became known as Augustus Caesar.

The civil war between the men ensured that the Roman oligarchy would fall, and there would now be political struggles between two consuls instead of a senate and a dictator. Thus Antony, as Caesar's key adherent and one of the two men around whom power revolved after Caesar’s assassination, was one of the three men chiefly responsible for the fall of the Roman Republic.

Costume: As a senator and ruler, Mark Antony wore the common dress for such people. This was a toga praetexta, or a toga with a purple border, that was worn by all men of (former) political importance, and young boys. This simple costume was worn instead of any kind of lavish and extravagant clothing to signify that the people are equal to the rest of Rome’s citizens, and so do not exceed the more poor classes by much.

As a military leader, Mark Antony wore the metal armour of high-class warriors, which was a breast/back plate, and a sectionalised skirt to protect the waist-area, but allow for extensive movement. This metallic armour was worn over a red tunic, and Antony was famous for wearing a red cape over the armour. His footwear for this costume were sandals, and his headdress was a helmet with the common “broom” decorating the top.

Gallia

The Romans are occupying Gaul, and prepare a large treasure. The Gauls entrust their families and fortunes to the woods. The Romans prepare large penalties for the Gauls. The penalties are harsh. Then the memory of the injustices at the fight enrages the province of Gaul. The Gauls announce:

“You are occupying our land by means of war. You carry a great treasure to Italy by means of large wagons. Our punishments are harsh. But tomorrow, we will fight and we will save our lives and our treasure with our victories. You enrage us to battle with injuries and punishments. We prepare to fight. We will announce the pleasing victories of our families, but you will not announce the great victories of Rome.”

The Gauls fight bravely for a long time, but the victories of Rome are clear and numerous. The Gauls do not save their lives and land.

Where is the province Gaul? Do you all accuse the Gauls because they fought? Do you not praise the courage of the Gauls? Will you entrust the battles of the Gauls to memory?

Days with Books and Writers

Once, P. Ovidius Naso, a pleasing Roman poet at the time, prepared to read a poem. P. Caecillus Rufus, the father of Publius, knew the friend of the poet; and so, Rufus proceeded with his friend and with his son and Furianus to the building, in which lived Ovidius. The enthusiasm of Publius and Furianus was great; in fact, they saw and displayed many poems of Ovidius in the shop of the Sosii, and often desired to see Ovidius himself. In the street, Rufus and the friend talked about many poets.

“Ovidius is the best of the poets of Rome,” shouts the friend. “When men will have forgotten the names of all the other poets who now are out of memory, the name of Ovidius will remain.”

“It is good, but not better than Vergilius and Horatius, whom the boys were listening to. Better than them, Rome has neither seen, nor heard.”

“Surely, surely, he did not write the Aneid, the Secular Hymn; The Amores and other books are pleasing, but not extraordinary. But I heard much about his new book, which is named Transformations.”

“Has Augustus seen his book?”

“I don’t know. Ovidius on the other hand is not very pleasing to be seen for Augustus. Augustus holds Horatius and Vergil in his memory.”

They arrived to the building in which Ovidius lived, and Ovidius recited to them the new book. He read the poem about Orpheus and his wife. Publius and Furianus listened with great zeal. Having read the poem, they slowly withdrew from the building.

“He is without doubt a poet!” was the word of Publius.

Daphne and Apollo Translation

But your beauty prevents your wish, and your form disagrees with your prayer. Phoebus is loving that, which it is seen, and he desires a marriage Daphne’s, and because he desires, he hopes, and his oracle decieved him, in order to flatten the light stubble of grain, in order to often burn the torch, which a traveler lets them get too close, or forgets them in the morning, thus the god was killed in the flames, thus his whole heart was being burned and it was nourishing his barren desire with love. He watches her disordered hair hanging to her neck and sighs ‘What, if it is aranged?’ He sees her eyes twinkling similar to the stars, he sees the kiss, which was not seen enough; he praises her wrists and hands and fingers, and her arms bare to the shoulder, if it is hidden, he imagines better. She flees swifter than wind itself is light, and resists his words calling her back. “Nymph, I beg, of Peneus, wait! Your pursuer is not your enemy, Nymph, Wait! Thus sheep from a wolf, thus deer from a lion, thus doves flee from an eagle with frightening wings: everything flies from its enemy: I am striving for the sake of love! Pity me! Do not fall headfirst the thorns undeservedly scar your legs and maybe I am a cause of grief to you! The places are rough, through which you run. Slow down, I say, inhibit your running fleeing, and I will attack slower myself. Inquire however who you charm: not a mountain man, I am not a shepherd, not a horrible head of flocks that I see. You don’t know, rash one, you do not know, whom you flee from, and therefore you flee: Delphi’s lands are mine, and Claros and Tenedos, and Patara serve the kingdom; Jupiter is the creator; through me what was, what is, and what will be, are revealed. Through me strings harmonize a song. Indeed, our it is certain, but an arrow more reliable than ours has made a wound in the emptiness of my chest! Having found my medicine; and bringing help through the talking horizon, and my power is subject to herbs. But love cannot be healed by means of herbs, nor can the arts that cure others cure the master!”

More would have been said as timid Peneis ran fleeing, And with his own imperfect words leaving him, For it was fitting to see; they came to uncover the body, and in front of the way they

and the wind was giving incitement behind her hair, and the increasement caused the figure to flee. But the young god cannot bear to waste his pursuasive words further, and so he was moving towards love, at a quickeded pace, soon. Next he was going to spread out his search like a hound of Gaul. He sees her in an empty field and this dog, ready to snatch, she is in safety; like one about to pounce, he had hoped to snatch her, and grazes the heels of the hare with outstretched muzzle; thus the virgin and the god; he is driven by desire, she by fear. He ran faster and love aided him with wings. He did not allow pause and fled to her back, he breathed on the hair on the back of her neck.

Her courage fled her, and she began to turn rapidly pale, she was overcome by the efforts of her fleeing, and seeing Peneidas’s waves/waters. “Father,” she said, “If your waters have the divine power! Destroy my figure and what pleases so much!”

Scarecely finishing the prayer, numbness overcame her, her breast became enclosed in bark and her hair into leaves, her arms came forth as branches. Her feet so quick a moment ago, took root, her face had branches in it. Only her splendor was left.

Daphne baing changed into a tree, Phoebus still loved her, and he placed his right hand on the trunk. He experienced her heart, still under the bark and he stood before her branches, as though they were limbs, and gave a kiss to the bark: but the timber fled from his kiss.

The god said, “Because you are not able to be with me, you are certainly my tree. Laurel, with you my hair will be wreathed, with you my lyre, with you my quiver. You will be near the Roman leaders with happy Triumph Parades, your voice will sing and see Capitolia’s long procession.

You famously guard the doorpost for Augustus, and will remain before his doors, and in the middle you will protect the oak tree wreath, and just young, uncut head of hair, you will therefore carry honourable leaves.”

Apollo had finished by means of the new branches, like a head, she shook her branches.

Catiline’s Audacity

Useful Words: audacia—boldness, caedes—murder, coniuratio—conspiracy, furor—madness, iam pridem—long ago, ignoro—not know, immo vero—rather, orbis terrae—the world, patientia—patience, praesidium—garrison, praetero—pass by, studeo—be eager (for), timor—fear, vigilia—loss of sleep, vultus—expression.

I, 1. Catiline, tell me how long are you going to waste our patience? How long will that anger of yours still elude us? When will unbridled audacity throw you to the edge? Do the night garrison of Palatus, do the awakened cities, does the fear of the people, does the concurrence of the good people, does this having been the most fortified position of the senate, do the expressions on the the faces at this hour not move you? Your council does not realize to open, do they not see now the bindings of all the hours the knowledge having held conspiracies against you? Why is it becoming near to November 7, why will it have driven the greatest night, where will you have been, who do you call together, of what councils do you seize, why have you decided to ignore us?

Attire of a Roman Citizen

Even though in Ancient Rome there were no advanced machines to make T-shirts, or denim pants, Romans still had unique costume, and fashion to go along with it. As today, the attire of a man was somewhat different than that of a woman, and the type of clothing Romans wore differed with each occasion. This, however, was not the only reason Romans wore clothing, apart from covering their body. They used clothes to signify their social status, governmental importance, and legal standing by changing the color of the cloth, the fabric it was made of, and the amount of fabric that the article was made of.

To find a place to begin, I will start with the men’s dress. The most commonly worn garment in Rome was not the toga, but the tunica. This tunica was a type of shirt, and the simplest of all the clothes. It was simply two pieces of square cloth sewn together, except where the head and arms had to come through. The man would have tied it at the waist with a belt, and pulled it through to just the right length. Even though the tunica had sleeves on occasion, this was not a common accessory, and was left off most of the time. The tunica played an important role in signifying a man’s status, as men wore it almost all of the time. The tunica varies from the undyed, rough wool that simpletons at the boddom of the ladder wore, to the wealthy man’s soft silky tunica, which acted as an undergarment.

Even though the tunica is the most commonly worn garment in Rome, the one that they are most known for is, of course, the toga. There were a vast variety of togas worn by many Romans. The toga came to the Romans from the Etruscans and Greeks, both of which had worn a long cloak to cover their bodies. The first togas of Rome, however, were developed as smallish pieces of oval cloth worn over the tunic in a complicated pattern of wrapping and folding. Like the tunica, the toga was heavily used as a distinction of class and status – much more so, in fact, than the tunica. Though the shape of the garment was consistent, the color and texture varied. The common toga of the not-so-wealthy middle class people was a simple woolen cloth, left its natural color. This was the toga virilis, the manly toga. Candidates campaigning for a public office often bleached the toga to draw attention to themselves. A contrast to this was the toga pulla, a darkly dyed toga worn when mourning losses. The toga praetexta was a toga with a purple stripe worn by children and important public officials. Finally, the toga traeba was worn by priests, and had red and purple stripes.

The women, however, were not to be outdone, and had several different clothes of their own. The most common garment of the married woman was the stola. This long, sleeveless gown that hung down to the ground was worn over the silky tunica that women wore under clothes. It was clinched at the shoulders with fibulae, and worn with two belts – one on the chest and one around the waist, because this made the folds numerous and beautiful. To wear a stola symbolised that the woman was married, and that was a sure way to raise yourself in the social ladder. Thus, the article of clothing not only served to look good, but like most Roman clothes, was used to show the status of the individual.

Just as the toga went hand in hand with the tunica for men, the palla went hand in hand with the stola for women. This was a big rectangular piece of woolen fabric, the simplicity of which allowed for many different uses. It could be a blanket at night, or a bathrobe, or worn as clothing over a tunica or a shirt, or toga, or a stola. Even though this object had so many uses, even the palla had significance in social status. The type of material it was made of clearly conveyed the wealth of the lady wearing the palla, and the use of expensive dyes and intricate designs helped to further prove this point.

When the Romans discovered the barbarians of the north, they were apalled at the “pants” these people were. To the Romans, wearing leg covering was seen as crude, and wrong. However, when the Romans took the time to study the conditions the barbarians lived in, they learned to understand that it was a simple matter of warmth and protection that drove the barbarians to wear pants, not some disgusting fashion. Thus, the Romans decided to experiment, and adapted a version of the pants called the feminalia, tight pants that reached to the knee, worn mostly by men. They did this to protect their own soldiers from the cold of Britain, as they saw the natives doing there. Eventually, the pants became more fashionable in Rome, and even the emperor Nero could have been seen wearing these.

Bibliography

Pendergast, Sara and Tom. Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages: Volume 1: The Ancient World. Detroit: U•X•L, 2004.

Payne, Blanche. The History of Costume: Second Edition. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1992.

Dersin, Denise. What Live Was Like when Rome Rulet the World. Richmond: Time Life, 1997.

Symons, David. Costume of Ancient Rome. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987.

Types of Chemical Reactions

Purpose: This lab will demonstrate several different types of chemical reactions. The five chemical reactions that we are currently studying in chemistry are: combination reactions, which are two or more substances combining to form a new substance; decomposition reactions, which are a substance breaking down into two or more different substances or elements; single-replacement reactions, which involve a metallic ion replacing a different metallic ion from an ionic compound; double-replacement reactions, which involve the swapping of metal ions from ionic compounds; and combustion reactions, which involve the presence of heat and oxygen to burn a substance and create new substances. In this lab, we will be engaging in several experiments do demonstrate many of these types of reactions to ourselves.

Data and Calculations:

Reaction	Observation	Reaction Type
Fe + CuSO4	Iron becomes rust-coloured, liquid loses blue color, turns more clear to greenish.	Single-replacement
Pb(NO3)2 + KI	Liquid turns bright yellow, dazzling yellow powdered precipitate can be seen sinking to the bottom of the tube.	Double-replacement
Mg + HCl	Magnesium dissolves in the acid very quickly. Bubbles form, and after they are collected in a large test tube and ignited, a loud “pop” can be heard.	Single-replacement
Electrolysis of H2­O	The negative side of the U-shaped tube with electrodes at each end produces much more gas than the positive side.	Decomposition

Analysis:

2) The following are the equations for each of the reactions.

a) Fe(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → Cu(s) + FeSO₄(aq)

b) Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) + KI(aq) → K₂(NO₃)(aq) + PbI_4­(s)

Pb(NO₃)_2­(aq) + 4KI(aq) → 2K₂(NO₃)(aq) + PbI_4­(s)

c) Mg(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl₂(aq) + H₂↑

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl₂(aq)_­ + H₂↑

d) H₂O(l) → O₂(g) + H₂(g)

2H₂O(l) → O₂(g) + 2H₂(g)

5) Please refer to my purpose for my explanations. Here’s more:

There are five types of reactions: combination, decomposition, single-replacement, double-replacement, and combustion reactions. I will start from the top. A combination reaction is one in which two or more elements or substances come together to create a new substance. An example of this is when oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water. A decomposition reaction is when a substance breaks down into two or more substances that used to make up that substance. A great example of this type of reaction is when sugar (C₆H­₁₂O₆) breaks down into carbon (C) and water (H₂O). A single replacement reaction happens when an ionized metal, such as lithium, replaces another cation, such as magnesium, from an ionic compound dissolved in water, such as magnesium chloride. A double-replacement reaction happens when two aqueous ionic compounds, such as sodium cyanide and sulfuric acid, swap their cations, becoming hydrogen cyanide gas, and sodium sulfate. Finally, a combustion reaction is when an element or compound such as magnesium, and oxygen gas are heated together, and create one or more new substances, such as magnesium oxide, and emit heat in the process.

Results/Discussion: This lab was very useful to me in demonstrating all the different types of chemical reactions, so that I could witness them, and see that they actually do work. This visualization of abstract topics that we are studying was a tremendous help in showing me how they work. In the iron and copper sulfate experiment, I could clearly see the solid becoming red, and the blue tint leaving the liquid, which was proof that the copper was being replaced by the iron in the ionic compound. The experiment that formed the yellow precipitate was a bit puzzling, since I did not really know which product was the solid, and which was the liquid. The electrolysis decomposition experiment immediately showed how water decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen, since gas bubbles started rising instantly after the experiment is started. One side produces much more gas than the other, and I think that the greater gas produced is hydrogen, because in the balanced equation (2H₂O(l) → O₂(g) + 2H₂(g)), two hydrogen molecules are produced from water, compared with only one oxygen molecule. Some potential errors that may have occurred during the course of the lab is mixing the wrong chemicals together, or waiting too long to capture the hydrogen from the magnesium and HCl experiment, resulting in the failure to notice the hydrogen gas being formed.

The Specific Heat of a Metal

Purpose: In this chapter, we have been studying how the transfer of heat and energy from one substance to another alters the temperature of the objects. This lab will attempt to provide a real-world example of the theories put forth by the text. We will be heating several different substances and then submerging them in a set amount of water at standard conditions to see the change in temperature. Thus, we will hope to understand how to evaluate scientifically such temperature changes by means of heat flow.

Data and Calculations:

Measurements of Mass and Temperature
Mass of Copper	57.32g
Volume of Antifreeze	5mL
Density of Antifreeze	1.26g/mL
Mass of Unknown Metal	18.39g
Initial temperature1 of H2O in cup	22°C
Water1 with Copper @ 100°C	25°C
Water1 with Unknown @ 100°C in cup	26°C
Initial temperature2 of H2O in cup	21°C
Water2 with antifreeze @100° C in cup	28°C
Difference of temperature of Copper	3°C
Difference of temperature of Unknown	4°C
Difference of temperature of Antifreeze	7°C

Analysis:

1) Change in temperature of water for each substance: Copper=3°C Antifreeze=7°C Unknown=4°C.

2) Heat gained with Copper: q=∆H = 57.32 x 1 x (25-22) = 171.96
Heat gained with Anrifreeze: q = ∆H = (1.26x5)x1x(28-21)=44.1
Heat gained with Unknown: q = ∆H = 18.39x1x(26-22)=73.56

3) Specific heat of each substance:
Copper: C=171.96/(57.32x3)=.418
Antifreeze: C=44.1/((1.26x5)x7)=1
Unknown: C=73.56/(18.39x4)=1

4) N/A

5) See above.

6) Accepted value of copper: .387
Percent error=|.387-.418| = 8.01%
.387

7) It would be less than it actually is.

8) The substance may have had time to cool substantially while being transferred from the flask of boiling water to the styrofoam cup.

Results/Discussion: I have discovered that it is possible to measure the specific heat of substances if you only know their weight, and how much they changed the temperature of a certan amount of water under certain conditions. This allows me to understand clearly the origin of specific heat, and why it is used. The final specific heat of the unknown turned out to be a round 1. This is surprisingly high, and was probably an error in the experiment. I did not find any metal that was remotely close to this stellar specific heat capacity. My result for the copper, however, were satisfactorily close to the accepted value, which reassured me that at least part of the laboratory was completed successfully. I cannot say anything about the antifreeze, since I do not know what its accepted specific heat capacity is. Knowing that antifreeze is used to prevent the flow of heat, however, I think it is safe to assume that this substance would have a high specific heat capacity. Experimentally, we showed that it does indeed have a high specific heat capacity, also 1, which seems reasonable, though it is probably too low. Otherwise, car manufacturers would use water, which is cheaper and also has a specific heat capacity of 1, instead of the expensive and toxic antifreeze. I think some potential errors were that the unknown metal released too much heat as it was transferred from the double boiler to the styrofoam cup. This way, it seemed that it absorbed a lot less heat than it really did, and made its specific heat capacity a lot higher than it is in reality. I think this lab did a very good job of explaining specific heat. I now understand a lot better that specific heat capacity is directly related to how quickly a substance can be heated, or how much energy is needed to heat the substance. This will help my overall task of studying specific heat, because I have a better conceptual view of the topic in my mind.

Quantitative Analysis

Purpose: This lab will be conducted in the hopes of finding the values of the coefficients of the products and the reactants, and comparing them to the theoretical result, to see if they are equal.

Data and Calculations:

Items	Mass (g)
Empty, dry cup	8.94 g
Iron nails	7.08 g
Iron nails (after reaction)	6.19 g
Beaker and dry product	9.78 g
Dry product net weight	0.84 g

Step	Observations
1	Turned bright ren in green solution. Covered with bubbles.
2	Liquid turned bright green. Nails look like they are covered in tiny spikes. They are much thicker than before, bright brown.
3	When washed, the red rust came off easily turning into fine powder in the liquid.
4	After the water was evaporated, the dry product was a big mass of brown porous material attached to the bottom of the cup. However, when prodded with one of the nails, the mass came apart into extremely fine powder, which reddened significantly.

Analyses and Conclusions:

1) Mass lost by the iron nails: 0.89 g

2) 7.08gFe . 1molFe = 0.127 mol Fe
1 55.8gFe

3) Mass of product: 0.84 g

Conclusion: I have discovered that the experiment was not 100% efficient, because the mass of the product weighs less than the mass lost by the iron nails. This proves that energy was lost somehow during the process. I have also learned that it is possible to find out the chemical equations of reactions by doing the reactions themselves, instead of finding them in books. My answer seems reasonable, because I expected some mass to be lost.

Physical and Chemical Changes

Purpose: The goal of this laboratory is to learn the difference between physical and chemical changes in elements, and mixtures. This is a very important, and fundamental concept that any chemist needs to know, because most experiments are subcategories of these two groups of changes. We will test various elements and compounds, such as sulfur, and salt, for their physical and chemical properties. First, we will observe the physical properties of the substances, then we will conduct several experiments to see how these substances act by themselves, or with other substances.

Data and Calculations: This is the data that I have collected while observing the physical properties of the various substances presented for testing.

Substance + Formula	Physical State	Color	Effect of Magnet
Sulfur, S	Solid	Yellow	None
Iron filings, Fe	Solid	Brown-Black	Greatly Attracted
Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3	Solid	White	None
Sodium chloride, NaCl	Solid	White	None
Sand, SiO2	Solid	Light tan	None
Magnesium, Mg	Solid	Silvery-gray	None

This is the data that I have collected while conducting the various tests that my lab book suggested.

System	Observations
Fe + S mixture tested with a magnet	Separates Fe from S cleanly; the Fe is attracted to the magnet while the S stays at the bottom.
NaCl and SiO2 mixture mixed with water	The NaCl dissolves in the water, and the SiO2 does not, which leaves the SiO2 at the bottom of the test tube.
Mg burned in air	Created an extremely bright, small flame. The combustion product is bright white, retains some original shape of the reactant.
Mg reacted with 6M HCl	The Mg bubbles violently in the liquid, producing immediate and intense heat. The Mg is dissolved completely.
Combustion product (cp) reacted with 6M HCl	The cp slowly clouds the liquid, producing some warmth gradually. After the lengthy process is finished, the liquid is still very cloudy, and there is some residue on the bottom of the vessel.
NaHCO3 reacted with 6M HCl	Very violent bubbling is produced by the reaction. The NaHCO3 quickly runs out of HCl to react with, so more is added. A drastic drop in temperature can also be observed.

Analysis:

1) Questions:

a) Mixing Fe and S is a physical change, since no reaction occurred, and the elements were very easily separated with a magnet.

b) Mixing salt, sand, and water was also a physical change. The sand did not change at all, except for becoming wet, and the salt simply dissolved, which is a physical change, since it can be easily extracted from the water via evaporation.

c) Burning Mg is a chemical change, since the Mg reacts with O₂ in the air to create a product whose properties are different from either.

d) Mixing Mg and the combustion product with HCl is a chemical change, since the process emitted heat energy and gas, which a physical change could not have accomplished. Mixing the combustion product with HCl is both a chemical and a physical change, since only some of the substance reacted with the HCl. This is evident, because on one hand it emits some heat energy, but on the other, it is clear that some of the substance remains unchanged because of the residue that is left in the vessel.

e) Mixing NaHCO₃ with HCl is most definitely a chemical reaction, since, first of all, it creates gas, and second, it uses energy to react.

2) If the property of the substance can be easily distinguished with the senses, or by changing the state of the matter, it is a physical property. If it involves destroying the substance and creating another, then it is chemical.

3) Deciding whether an observed change of matter is a physical or chemical change can be done by looking at whether the process uses or emits energy, whether a new and different product is created by the process, whether the process creates more, less, or the same amount of products, and whether or not the product is easy to separate.

4) The law of conservation of mass states that the mass of the sum of the reactants must be equal to the mass of the products.

Results/Discussion: From all my data, I have discovered that it is easy to separate iron from a non magnetic substance with a simple magnet, that you can free anything from salt by pouring water over it, and that Magnesium, Hydrochloric acid, and Sodium hydrogen carbonate interact with each other in specific ways. My answers generally make sense, because whenever I did whatever the lab book suggested, I always came up with an interesting, unique answer. The only doubt I have is the way that the magnesium combustion product reacted with HCl. I presumed that it would not react with the HCl, because it had already reacted with oxygen. However, a small, slow reaction did occur. This may have been because the magnesium did not react completely with oxygen, but left some parts not oxidized. That way, the magnesium areas could react with the HCl. Some errors could have included a thickness of glass issue, such that the magnet could not attract the Fe filings inside of the vessel. Also, the magnesium combustion product may have dispersed in the air due to its lightweight mass. Thus, one of the experiments would not have been possible to complete. The purpose of the lab was definitely accomplished, because the lab clearly defined the difference between a physical and a chemical change or property. It showed that a physical property is something that can be observed without destroying the original composition of the substance, and that can be easily measured with the senses, and that to see a chemical property, one must change the original substance by reacting it with another to create a whole new substance. This fact will help me very much in the future, because now I can clearly define between the two terms, and show the difference between them.